= Expression Tour =

This is a "tour" of various kinds of expressions in Cobra. It is intended to help you learn Cobra by quickly highlighting some interesting expressions you can write. It is neither a reference nor an exhaustive list of features. It assumes that the reader has basic familiarity with programming.

== Displaying Expression Values ==

One of the best ways is to display an expression's value is to use the [wiki:Trace] statement which will show the source code of the expression, its value and the location of the trace in the source code (filename, line number, etc.):

{{{
#!python
trace p.x, p.y
}}}
{{{
    trace: p.x=5; p.y=6; at Foo.cobra:6; in Foo.main
}}}

You can, of course, use a [wiki:Print] statement. On a related note, you can validate the value of an expression with an [wiki:Assert] statement.
{{{
#!python
print 'My name is', name
assert x > 0
}}}

== Arithmetic ==

Arithmetic has the usual infix operators and parentheses for grouping. Note that division with a single slash (/) gives a fractional value. Use a double slash (//) for "integer" division.
{{{
#!python
assert 4 / 5 = 0.8
assert 4 // 5 == 0
assert 6 / 5 == 1.2
assert 6 // 5 == 1
}}}

Augmented assignment operators can be used to change values:
{{{
#!python
i += 1
p.x *= 2
}}}

Underscores can be put in numbers to separate groups of digits for easier reading:
{{{
#!python
big = 10_000_000
}}}

== Bitwise ==
Standard bit operations.
  - & = bitwise 'and'
  - | = bitwise 'or'
  - ~ = bitwise not (flip)
  - !^ = bitwise Xor
  - << = left shift
  - >> = right shift 


== Boolean ==

Boolean expressions include the literals `true` and `false` as well as logical operations such as `and`, `or`, `not`, comparisons and other tests.
{{{
#!python
obj.isActive = true
if obj.isActive, .doSomething
}}}

Note: You dont need to compare booleans against true or false ( dont say == true or ==false). Most things have a natural truth or not
see


to-do (all, any) 
== Strings ==

to-do (literals, immutable, common methods, stringbuilder, msdn reference)

== Calling Methods ==

to-do (don't need empty parens, calling on "this", calling base)

== Instantiating Types ==

to-do (use parens, keyword args for properties, combining enums, works on System.Type and dynamic)

== Comparing Values ==

to-do (<>, is & is not vs. == & <>, 0<= i < 10, overriding .equals (and .getHashCode) and .compareTo)

== Collections ==

to-do (list, array, set, dict, explicit creation, indexing, .get, membership(in and not in for lists, arrays, sets, dict.keys, dict.values) )

== Slicing ==

to-do

== Type Membership ==

to-do (inherits, implements, if-inherits, alternative is virtual method)

== Casting to Type or Nilability ==

Cast an expression to a particular Type (nilable or not).
Cast to or away from nilability.

EXPR to TYPE 
   - cast the expression to the given TYPE, cast failing throws an Exception.
   - ("cast or throw Exception")
   
EXPR to? TYPE
   - cast the expression to the given TYPE, if the cast fails return nil 
   - ("cast or return nil")

   - Note: single token 'to?' no spaces

EXPR to ?
  - cast the type of EXPR to the nilable version of same type  (EXPR.typeOf?)
  - Note space between 'to' and '?'

EXPR to ! 
  - cast the type of EXPR to the non-nilable version of same type( EXPR.typeOf!) 

{{{
#!cobra

s = 'String'
sObj = s to Object
assert sObj.typeof is Object

ds as dynamic = 'xyzzy'
s = ds to String

i = 99
s = i to? String
assert s is nil

s = 'xyzzy'  # nonnilable
sNil = s to ? #cast to nilable

s as String? = 'xyzzy'
sNotNil = s to ! # non nilable
 
}}}

== If Expression ==
Trinary operator on an expression.
If the conditional expression evaluates to true  give the first Expr otherwise give the second. 

Note: no space between the if and the '(' - single token 'if('

=== Grammar ===
if( COND-EXPR, EXPR1, EXPR2 )

{{{
#!cobra
i=22
z = if( i>10, 100, 0) 
assert z == 100

name = if( s.length, s, 'empty')

o = if(o, o, default)
# set o to 'default' if it is nil - but see nil coalesce below
}}}

== For Expression ==
Apply an expression across a collection or range or a filtered subset thereof.

=== Grammar ===
for VAR in EXPR [where EXPR ] get EXPR

for VAR in EXPR where EXPR 
  - same as   for VAR in EXPR where EXPR get VAR

for VAR in START-EXPR : STOP-EXPR [: STEP_EXPR] [where EXPR] get EXPR 

{{{
#!cobra
a = for i in 1:4 get i*2
assert a == [2,4,6]

a = for i in [1, 2, 3] get i*10
assert a == [10, 20, 30]  

a = for i in 10 where i>5 get i
assert a == [6, 7, 8, 9]

c = ['how', 'now', 'brown', 'cow']
d = for k in c where k.endsWith('ow') get k
assert d == ['how', 'now', 'cow']


tmpFiles = for fileName in Directory.getFiles('.') where '.tmp' in fileName

}}}


== Try-Catch-Get Expression ==

This is a shorthand for a try-catch statement wrapping a single statement assigning an expression.[[BR]]
The value of the expression is the value of the expr following 'try' or if an exception is thrown the value of the expression after the 'get'.

If an Exception-Type is not given it will catch all Exceptions.
 
=== Grammar ===
try EXPR catch [ EXCEPTION-TYPE ] get EXPR 

{{{
#!cobra
inVal = '..' #an int string presumably
x = try int.parse(inVal) catch FormatException get 0 #  return 0 if inVal not an int String

# Catch all exceptions
dflt = '---'
s1 = try String.format('{1:P}', 0.123) catch get dflt
assert s1 == '---'
}}}

== Nil ==

Operations and literals around nil/null values.[[BR]]
'''nil''' is the nil/null literal

EXPR to ?
  - cast the type of EXPR to the nilable form of the same type (EXPR.typeOf?, nilable EXPR.typeof)

EXPR to ! 
  - cast the type of EXPR to the the non-nilable form of same type( EXPR.typeOf!) 

EXPR ? EXPR1
   - nil coalesce - if EXPR is nil return EXPR1

EXPR ! EXPR
   - non-nil coalesce - if EXPR is non nil return EXPR1

EXPR1 ?= EXPR1
    - nil coalesce EXPR1 to itself or EXPR2
    - same as EXPR1 = EXPR1 ? EXPR2

EXPR1 != EXPR1
    - non-nil coalesce EXPR1 to itself or EXPR2
    - same as EXPR = EXPR1 ! EXPR2

     - Note: gotcha Warning
     b != a   This is NOT 'b not equals (<>) a' -  is same as b = b ! a  OR  b = if( b <> nil, a, nil)

{{{
#!cobra

if a is nil, print 'Bad a'

y = a ? b    # coalesce nil : y gets a if a non nil, b otherwise
#same as y = if(a, a, b) except a evaluated only once

a = a ? default    # a if a nonnil, default otherwise
# above is same as 
a ?= default


y = b ! a    # coalesce non nil : y gets b if b is nil, a otherwise  
# same as y = if(b <> nil, a, nil)  OR y = if(not b, a, nil)

i as int? = input ! int.parse(input)  
#( equiv to i = if(input <> nil ? int.parse(input),  nil)
}}}


== Method References ==

to-do (ref obj.method)

== Expressions in Contracts ==

to-do (old expr, a implies b, breakout to a method)

== See Also ==

 * LanguageTopics
 * HowToPrograms
 * LibraryTopics